On beyond zebra target8/7/2023 ![]() ![]() The venom, which is expelled via the same mechanism used to inject prey ( Young et al., 2004), is preferentially directed at the face and/or eyes of a potential predator ( Westhoff et al., 2005). Multiple species of Asiatic and African cobras have evolved the ability to ‘spit’ venom ( Bogert, 1943). The cobra's ability to track and anticipate the target's movement, and to perform rapid cephalic oscillations that coordinate with the target's movements suggest a level of neural processing that has not been attributed to snakes, or other reptiles, previously. ![]() Unlike other animals that project material, in spitting cobras the discharge orifice (the fang) is relatively fixed so directing the venom stream requires rapid movements of the entire head. In the present study we show that spitting cobras can accurately track the movements of a potentially threatening vertebrate, and by anticipating its subsequent (short-term) movements direct their venom to maximize the likelihood of striking the target's eye. ![]() Several factors make this level of accuracy difficult to achieve the target is moving, is frequently >1 m away from the snake and the venom stream is released in approximately 50 ms. Spitting cobras, which defend themselves by streaming venom towards the face and/or eyes of a predator, must be highly accurate because the venom they spit is only an effective deterrent if it lands on the predator's cornea. ![]()
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